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GH-40028: [C++][FS][Azure] Add AzureFileSystem support to FileSystemFromUri() (#40325)

### Rationale for this change

`FileSystemFromUri()` is a common API to create a file system object. `FileSystemFromUri()` should be able to create an `AzureFileSystem` object.

### What changes are included in this PR?

Add `AzureOptions::FromUri()` and use it from `FileSystemFromUri()`.

See the `AzureOptions::FromUri()`'s docstring about the supported formats.

### Are these changes tested?

Yes.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

Yes.
* GitHub Issue: #40028

Authored-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>
Signed-off-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>