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GH-43070: [C++][Parquet] Check for valid ciphertext length to prevent segfault (#43071)

### Rationale for this change

See #43070

### What changes are included in this PR?

Checks that the ciphertext length is at least enough to hold the length (if written), nonce and GCM tag for the GCM cipher type.

Also enforces that the input ciphertext length parameter is provided (is > 0) and verifies that the ciphertext size read from the file isn't going to cause reads beyond the end of the ciphertext buffer.

### Are these changes tested?

Yes I've added new unit tests for this.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

No
* GitHub Issue: #43070

Authored-by: Adam Reeve <adreeve@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: mwish <maplewish117@gmail.com>