arrow

GH-34535: [C++] Move ChunkResolver to the public API (#44357)

### Rationale for this change

Adopting https://github.com/apache/arrow/pull/40226. 

 The creation and return of a shared_ptr does result in some performance overhead, that makes a difference for a performance-sensitive application.

If someone could use ChunkResolver to learn the indices, they could then instead access the data directly. 

### What changes are included in this PR?

- [X] Updates to documentation (thanks to @ SChakravorti21 )
- [X] Moving `ChunkResolver` to public API, and updating all references to it in the code

### Are these changes tested?

There seemed to be comprehensive tests already: https://github.com/apache/arrow/blob/main/cpp/src/arrow/chunked_array_test.cc#L324 If an edgecase is missing, I'd be happy to add it.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

`ChunkResolver` and `TypedChunkLocation` are now in the public API.
* GitHub Issue: #34535

Lead-authored-by: Anja Kefala <anja.kefala@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: anjakefala <anja.kefala@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Bryce Mecum <petridish@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: SChakravorti21 <schakravorti@bloomberg.net>
Co-authored-by: SChakravorti21<schakravorti@bloomberg.net>
Co-authored-by: Jacob Wujciak-Jens <jacob@wujciak.de>
Signed-off-by: Felipe Oliveira Carvalho <felipekde@gmail.com>