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MINOR: [Dev][C++] Allow ubuntu-cpp-thread-sanitizer Docker build with Ubuntu 24.04 (#43619)

Install the clang-rt libraries that are necessary to link Thread Sanitizer-enabled binaries. Also fix use of deprecated `BufferReader` constructor in some tests, so that compilation with CLang 18 succeeds.

Note that the C++ test suite still fails on Flight tests, as tracked in GH-36552.

Authored-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>
Signed-off-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>