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ARROW-8146: [C++] Add per-filesystem facility to sanitize a path

Some filesystem types (e.g. local filesystem on Windows) might allow slightly different semantics for paths on the user side.  This function allows bridging the gap (but it has to be called explicitly).

Closes #6657 from pitrou/ARROW-8146-normalize-path

Authored-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>
Signed-off-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>