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GH-39738: [R] Support build against the last three released versions of Arrow (#39739)

### Rationale for this change

Development velocity of the R package has slowed considerably since early versions of Arrow such that the commit-level integration that we once relied on is no longer necessary. The ability to build against older versions of Arrow also opens up more options for our CRAN submissions, since we may be able to work with CRAN to build a version of Arrow C++ they are happy with.

This change doesn't require us to *do* anything about it...it just adds a check so that we are aware of the first PR that breaks the ability to build against a previous version.

There is a possibility that an accidentally but previously installed version will end up being used via pkg-config, which I believe is how the version checking came into existence in the first place.

### What changes are included in this PR?

- An `#if` to guard code that was added to support the string view/binary view
- Changes to the version checker script to not error for supported Arrow C++ versions
- CI job that checks build against supported Arrow versions

### Are these changes tested?

Yes, a CI job was added

### Are there any user-facing changes?

Yes, but I'll wait until there's consensus on this before documenting what our intended support policy will be.

* Closes: #39738

Lead-authored-by: Dewey Dunnington <dewey@voltrondata.com>
Co-authored-by: Jacob Wujciak-Jens <jacob@wujciak.de>
Co-authored-by: Dewey Dunnington <dewey@fishandwhistle.net>
Signed-off-by: Jacob Wujciak-Jens <jacob@wujciak.de>