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GH-40558: [C++][CI] Fix TSAN and ASAN/UBSAN crashes (#40559)

### Rationale for this change

A recent kernel update on some distributions (particularly Ubuntu) broke sanitizers:
https://github.com/google/sanitizers/issues/1716

### What changes are included in this PR?

Apply recommended workaround by reducing the number of bits used by ASLR (address space layout randomization).

### Are these changes tested?

Yes, they should fix the failing C++ sanitizer jobs.

### Are there any user-facing changes?

No.

* GitHub Issue: #40558

Authored-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>
Signed-off-by: Antoine Pitrou <antoine@python.org>