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ARROW-13444: [C++] Remove usage of deprecated std::result_of

Also clean up some UBSAN nullptr arithmetic warnings

Closes #10814 from bkietz/13444-C20-compatibility-by-upda

Authored-by: Benjamin Kietzman <bengilgit@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Benjamin Kietzman <bengilgit@gmail.com>