arrow

GH-35669: [C++] Update to double-conversion 3.3.0, activate new flags, remove patches (#36002)

[double-conversion v3.3.0](https://github.com/google/double-conversion/releases/tag/v3.3.0) adds a [new feature](https://github.com/google/double-conversion/pull/195) that allows us to remove the special code that was added to our vendored copy of double-conversion in #9816.

This PR:
* Updates vendored double-conversion to v3.3.0
* Activates the new flags `EMIT_TRAILING_DECIMAL_POINT_IN_EXPONENTIAL` and `EMIT_TRAILING_ZERO_AFTER_POINT_IN_EXPONENTIAL`
* Removes the patches in `cpp/src/arrow/vendored/double-conversion/patches`

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* Closes: #35669

Authored-by: Ian Cook <ianmcook@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Sutou Kouhei <kou@clear-code.com>